Integrated Watershed Management

Integrated Watershed Management

Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Soil Erosion, Sediment Retention, and Yield within the Ecosystem Services Framework in a Mountainous Region of Northern Iran

Document Type : Original Article

Authors
Mohsen Zabihi 1
Hamidreza Moradi 1
Abdulvahed Khaledi Darvishan 1
Mehdi Gholamalifard 2
1 Department of Watershed Management Engineering, Faculty of Natural Resources, Tarbiat Modares University, Noor, Iran
2 Department of the Environment, Faculty of Natural Resources, Tarbiat Modares University, Noor, Iran
10.22034/iwm.2025.2066256.1237
Abstract
Extended Abstract
Introduction:Soil loss and sediment yield are among the main challenges in watershed management, especially in mountainous areas, which, in addition to reducing soil fertility and ecosystem functioning, also threaten water quality and the sustainability of hydrological services. In this context, watershed hydrological services, such as sediment retention, are of high importance because they control soil erosion and reduce downstream sediment transport, thereby improving water quality. The topographic, climatic, and human conditions of mountainous regions in northern Iran, especially the Hyrcanian forests, make these areas particularly susceptible to soil degradation, increasing the need for monitoring ecosystem services and analyzing the spatiotemporal dynamics of sediment retention to assess changes in ecosystem functioning and the effectiveness of management measures. In this regard, the InVEST model, with a simple structure, limited input requirements, and high interpretability, is an effective tool for analyzing these services at the watershed scale. This model, using sediment delivery ratio equations and spatial data, allows examination of the spatiotemporal changes in soil erosion, sediment yield, and sediment retention. Given the need for comprehensive studies in Iran, especially in the Hyrcanian forests, the present study aims to investigate the spatiotemporal changes of soil loss, sediment retention, and sediment yield over a 25-year period in the Talar mountainous watershed. Additionally, sensitivity analysis of model input factors was conducted to identify the most influential variables affecting sediment delivery ratio results.
Materials and methods: The study area is the Talar watershed (Mazandaran Province), spanning over 1,700 km² on the northern slopes of the Alborz mountain range, with an elevation range from 216 to 3,983 meters. The SDR model from the InVEST toolkit was applied to estimate annual soil loss, sediment retention, and sediment yield. Average soil loss was calculated using the InVEST soil erosion equation based on key factors including rainfall erosivity, soil erodibility, vegetation cover, land management, and topography across three study periods. Additional parameters such as the sediment connectivity index, K factor, and maximum sediment delivery ratio were defined based on regional characteristics and expert knowledge. A sensitivity analysis of the model input factors was also conducted to identify the most influential variables affecting the sediment delivery ratio outcomes.
Results and Discussion: According to the results, over the 25-year study period, soil loss decreased from 896,535 to 758,981 ton, sediment retention from 1.297 to 0.757 million  ton, and sediment yield from 113,643 to 57,426  ton. The main cause of this reduction was a 28.8 % decrease in rainfall erosivity during the study period. The analysis showed that pasture land had the highest sediment retention capacity (415,978  ton), whereas orchards had the lowest (3,676 t). Meanwhile, the highest sediment yield occurred in rainfed agriculture and pasture, while forests and orchards had the lowest amounts. Sensitivity analysis indicated that rainfall erosivity, with a relative sensitivity coefficient of 0.99, was the most important factor affecting soil loss, sediment retention, and sediment yield, explaining more than 47 % of model output variations. The K parameter also influenced sediment retention and yield, though it had no direct effect on soil loss. Overall, the InVEST model is more sensitive to natural parameters such as rainfall than to management variables, highlighting the necessity of integrating climatic data with human interventions in management.
Conclusion: The findings indicate that the InVEST model, with high spatiotemporal analysis capability, is a suitable tool for assessing watershed hydrological services, especially in mountainous regions. The observed reduction in soil loss, sediment retention, and sediment yield over the study period was mainly due to decreased rainfall erosivity and climatic changes. Dense vegetation cover, such as forests and pastures, played a key role in sediment retention and soil erosion reduction, while human land uses such as agriculture contributed more to sediment yield. Sensitivity analysis emphasized the importance of natural factors, particularly rainfall, in watershed management. The findings can be applied to identify critical areas for conservation, prioritize sensitive land uses, design monitoring systems, and develop future management scenarios. It is recommended that future studies utilize long-term data, complementary models, and scenario-based analyses under climate change to enhance the accuracy of assessments and the applicability of results in ecosystem management decisions.
Keywords
Hyrcanian forests
Hydrological services
InVEST model
Sediment delivery ratio
Talar watershed
Subjects
Ahmadi Mirghaed, F., & Souri, B. (2023). Contribution of land use, soil properties and topographic features for providing of ecosystem services. Ecological Engineering, 189, 106898. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2023.106898
Asadolahi, Z., Salmanmahiny, A.R., & Mirkarimi, H. (2015). Modeling the Supply of Sediment Retention Ecosystem Service (Case study: Eastern Part of Gorgan-Rud Watershed). Environmental Erosion Researches, 5(3), 61-75. (In Persian)
Ashtari, N., & Nosrati, K. (2024). Identification of erosion-prone areas in connection with ranges of peak ground acceleration using fuzzy logic and entropy Shannon models in the Talar Drainage Basin, Mazandaran province. Quantitative Geomorphological Research, 13(3), 178-202. https://doi.org/10.22034/gmpj.2024.465763.1509   (In Persian)
Ayalew, D.A., Deumlich, D., Šarapatka, B., & Doktor, D. (2020). Quantifying the sensitivity of NDVI-based C factor estimation and potential soil erosion prediction using Spaceborne earth observation data. Remote Sensing, 12(7), 1136. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12071136
Bai, Y., Ochuodho, T.O., & Yang, J. (2019). Impact of land use and climate change on water-related ecosystem services in Kentucky, USA. Ecological Indicators, 102, 51-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.01.079
Barzali, M., Azimi, M., Abdolhosseini, M. & Lotfi, A. (2022). The Assessment of Rangeland Ecosystem Services in sediment retention via InVEST Model (Atrak Watershed, Golestan Province). Iranian Journal of Range and Desert Research, 29(1), 133-144. https://doi.org/10.22092/ijrdr.2022.126019   (In Persian)
Borselli, L., Cassi, P., & Torri, D. (2008). Prolegomena to sediment and flow connectivity in the landscape: A GIS and field numerical assessment. Catena, 75(3), 268-277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2008.07.006
Bouguerra, S., & Jebari, S. (2017). Identification and prioritization of sub-watersheds for land and water management using InVEST SDR model: Rmel River basin, Tunisia. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 10(15), 348. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-017-3104-z
Cerretelli, S., Poggio, L., Gimona, A., Yakob, G., Boke, S., Habte, M., Coull, M., Peressotti, A., & Black, H. (2018). Spatial assessment of land degradation through key ecosystem services: The role of globally available data. Science of the Total Environment, 628, 539-555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.085
Chauhan, A., Roy, S., & Kundu, A. (2024). Assessing sediment dynamics and retention services in the vulnerable mountain ecosystem of the Indian Himalayas. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 196(10), 928. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-024-13073-4
Chen, W., Chi, G., & Li, J. (2019). The spatial association of ecosystem services with land use and land cover change at the county level in China, 1995–2015. Science of the Total Environment, 669, 459-470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.139
Fryirs, K. (2013). (Dis) Connectivity in catchment sediment cascades: a fresh look at the sediment delivery problem. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 38(1), 30-46. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3242
Gashaw, T., Bantider, A., Zeleke, G., Alamirew, T., Jemberu, W., Worqlul, A.W., Dile, Y., Bewket, W., Meshesha, D., Adem, A., & Addisu, S. (2021). Evaluating InVEST model for estimating soil loss and sediment export in data scarce regions of the Abbay (Upper Blue Nile) Basin: Implications for land managers. Environmental Challenges, 5, 100381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2021.100381
Ghorbanpour, D. (2004). Study and estimation of the rainfall erosivity factor (R) in Mazandaran Province. Master’s thesis of Watershed Management Engineering,. Faculty of Natural Resources, Sari University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources. (In Persian)
Guesri, M., Megnounif, A., & Ghenim, A.N. (2020). Rainfall erosivity and sediment yield in Northeast Algeria: K’sob watershed case study. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 13(7), 299. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-020-5276-1   
Gwal, S., Sena, D.R., Srivastava, P.K., & Srivastava, S.K. (2024). Identifying conservation priority areas of hydrological ecosystem service using hot and cold spot analysis at watershed scale. Remote Sensing, 16(18), 3409. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16183409
Haji, K., Khaledi Darvishan, A., & Mostafazadeh, R. (2024). Soil erosion and sediment sourcing in the Hyrcanian forests, Northern Iran: An integration approach of the G2loss model and sediment fingerprinting technique. Modeling Earth Systems and Environment, 10(2), 1897-1914. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-023-01879-z   
Hamel, P., Chaplin-Kramer, R., Sim, S., & Mueller, C. (2015). A new approach to modeling the sediment retention service (InVEST 3.0): Case study of the Cape Fear catchment, North Carolina, USA. Science of the Total Environment, 524, 166-177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.04.027   
He, C., & James, L.A. (2021). Watershed science: Linking hydrological science with sustainable management of river basins. Science China Earth Sciences, 64(5), 677-690. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-020-9723-4
Hopkins, K. G., Noe, G. B., Franco, F., Pindilli, E. J., Gordon, S., Metes, M. J., Claggett, P.R., Gellis, A.C.,  Hupp, C.R., & Hogan, D. M. (2018). A method to quantify and value floodplain sediment and nutrient retention ecosystem services. Journal of Environmental Management, 220, 65-76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.05.013
Juan-Diego, E., Mendoza, A., Arganis-Juárez, M. L., & Berezowsky-Verduzco, M. (2025). Alteration of Catchments and Rivers, and the Effect on Floods: An Overview of Processes and Restoration Actions. Water, 17(8), 1177. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17081177
Kantharajan, G., Govindakrishnan, P.M., Singh, R.K., Natalia, E.C., Jones, S.K., Singh, A., Mohindra, V., Kumar, N., Rana, J.C., Jena, J.K., & Lal, K.K. (2022). Quantitative assessment of sediment delivery and retention in four watersheds in the Godavari River Basin, India, using InVEST model—an aquatic ecosystem services perspective. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(11), 30371-30384. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-24013-5
Laflen, J.M., & Moldenhauer, W.C. (2003). The USLE story (Special Publication No. 1). World Association of Soil and Water Conservation (WASWC).
Luo, M., Cai, J., Zeng, Z., Zheng, Y., & Lin, T. (2024). Development and practices of nature-based solutions in China. Nature-Based Solutions, 5, 100109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbsj.2023.100109
Marques, S. M., Campos, F.S., David, J., & Cabral, P. (2021). Modelling sediment retention services and soil erosion changes in Portugal: a spatio-temporal approach. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 10(4), 262. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi10040262
Mostafazadeh, R. , Mirzaei, S. , Esmali, A. and Zabihi, M. (2018). Sensitivity analysis of the flow hydrograph components due to changes in Clark's time-area model in Mohammad-Abad watershed, Gloestan Province. Iranian Journal of Soil and Water Research, 49(1), 91-99. https://doi.org/10.22059/ijswr.2018.221333.667580 (In Persian)
Mouida, A., & Alaa, N. (2011). Sensitivity analysis of TSEB model by one-factor-at-a-time in irrigated olive orchard. International Journal of Computer Science Issues (IJCSI), 8(3), 369.
Mperejekumana, P., Shen, L., Zhong, S., Muhirwa, F., Gaballah, M. S., & Nsigayehe, J. M. V. (2024). Integrating climate change adaptation into water-energy-food-environment nexus for sustainable development in East African Community. Journal of Cleaner Production, 434, 140026. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.140026
Namazi, M., Akbari, M., Memarian, H., Asadolahi, Z., & Parviyan, N. (2025). Evaluating the soil retention ecosystem service using the InVEST model in Northeastern Iran. Water and Soil Management and Modelling, https://doi.org/10.22098/mmws.2025.17666.1612 (In Persian)
Ouallali, A., Aassoumi, H., Moukhchane, M., Moumou, A., Houssni, M., Spalevic, V., & Keesstra, S. (2020). Sediment mobilization study on Cretaceous, Tertiary and Quaternary lithological formations of an external Rif catchment, Morocco. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 65(9), 1568-1582. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2020.1755435
Pérez-Cutillas, P., Benabdelouahab, S., & Salhi, A. (2025). Mitigating Erosion and Enhancing Sediment Retention: A Modeling Approach to Sustainable Land Management. Earth Systems and Environment, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41748-025-00660-9
Rehman, A., Farooq, M., Lee, D. J., & Siddique, K. H. (2022). Sustainable agricultural practices for food security and ecosystem services. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29(56), 84076-84095. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-23635-z
Renard, K.G., Foster, G.R., Weesies, G.A., McCool, D.K., & Yoder, D.C. (1997). Predicting Soil Erosion by Water: A Guide to Conservation Planning with the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE). Washington DC: V703.
Roba, N.T., Kassa, A.K., Geleta, D.Y., & Harka, A.E. (2021). Streamflow and sediment yield estimation, and area prioritization for better conservation planning in the Dawe River watershed of the Wabi Shebelle River Basin, Ethiopia. Heliyon, 7(12). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08509
Rojan, E., Dłużewski, M., & Krzemień, K. (2020). Sediment budget of high mountain stream channels in an arid zone (High Atlas mountains, Morocco). Catena, 190, 104530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2020.104530
Rostami, N., & Rabbani, M. (2023). Zoning of soil erodibility and determination of affecting factors (Case study: Golan watershed, Ilam). Integrated Watershed Management, 3(3), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.22034/iwm.2023.2004738.1084 (In Persian)
Sadat, M., Salehi, E., & Amiri, M.J. (2023). Quantitative Modeling of Spatiotemporal Changes in Soil Erosion and Retention Potential and Sediment Production (Case Study: Lahijan-Chabaksar and Astana-Kochsefhan Watersheds). Journal of Environmental Studies, 48(4), 577-596. https://doi.org/10.22059/jes.2023.348202.1008357 (In Persian)
Saltelli, A., Ratto, M., Tarantola, S., & Campolongo, F. (2006). Sensitivity analysis practices: Strategies for model-based inference. Reliability engineering & system safety, 91(10-11), 1109-1125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2005.11.014   
Sayed, K., Nazimuddin, R., Syakir, M.I., Yusuff, S., Johar, R., & Yaseen, Z.M. (2025). Shifting paradigm in water resources management: Public willingness to participate in watershed management of Batu Kurau, Perak, Malaysia. World Development Perspectives, 39, 100694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wdp.2025.100694
Sharp, R., Tallis, H.T., Ricketts, T., Guerry, A.D., Wood, S.A., Chaplin-Kramer, R., Nelson, E., Ennaanay, D., Wolny, S., Olwero, N., Vigerstol, K., Pennington, D., Mendoza, G., Aukema, J., Foster, J., Forrest, J., Cameron, D., Arkema, K., Lonsdorf, E., Kennedy, C., Verutes, G., Kim, C.K., Guannel, G., Papenfus, M., Toft, J., Marsik, M., Bernhardt, J., Griffin, R., Glowinski, K., Chaumont, N., Perelman, A., Lacayo, M. Mandle, L., Hamel, P., Vogl, A.L., Rogers, L., Bierbower, W., Denu, D., & Douglass, J. (2018). InVEST 3.5.0 User’s Guide. The Natural Capital Project, Stanford University, University of Minnesota, The Nature Conservancy, and World Wildlife Fund.
Solaimani, K., Shekarian, F., Abdoli, S. & Saberi, A. (2021). Prioritization of Talar watershed flood risk potential in GIS environment. Journal of Ecohydrology, 8(3), 749-762. https://doi.org/10.22059/ije.2021.324244.1509  (In Persian)
Talebikhiavi, H., Zabihi, M., & Mostafazadeh, R. (2017). Effects of land-use management scenarios on soil erosion rate using GIS and USLE model in Yamchi dam watershed, Ardabil. JWSS-Isfahan University of Technology, 21(2), 221-234. https://doi.org/10.18869/acadpub.jstnar.21.2.221   
Teh, S.H. (2011). Soil erosion modeling using RUSLE and GIS on Cameron Highlands, Malaysia for hydropower development (Doctoral dissertation).
Tiwari, P.C., & Joshi, B. (2012). Environmental changes and sustainable development of water resources in the Himalayan headwaters of India. Water resources management, 26(4), 883-907. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-011-9825-y
Turner, B., Devisscher, T., Chabaneix, N., Woroniecki, S., Messier, C., & Seddon, N. (2022). The role of nature-based solutions in supporting social-ecological resilience for climate change adaptation. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 47(1), 123-148. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-010017
Vahabzadeh, G. and Ahamdi, S. (2022). Evaluating the Effect of Climate on the Weathering Process of Rocks (Case Study: The Telar Watershed). Journal of Geography and Environmental Hazards, 11(2), 249-263. https://doi.org/10.22067/geoeh.2021.70604.1064 (In Persian)
Vigerstol, K.L., & Aukema, J.E. (2011). A comparison of tools for modeling freshwater ecosystem services. Journal of environmental Management, 92(10), 2403-2409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.06.040
Vigiak, O., Borselli, L., Newham, L.T.H., McInnes, J., & Roberts, A.M. (2012). Comparison of conceptual landscape metrics to define hillslope-scale sediment delivery ratio. Geomorphology, 138(1), 74-88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.08.026
Wang, G., Mang, S., Cai, H., Liu, S., Zhang, Z., Wang, L., & Innes, J. L. (2016). Integrated watershed management: evolution, development and emerging trends. Journal of Forestry Research, 27(5), 967-994. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-016-0293-3
Wischmeier, W.H., & Smith, D.D. (1978). Predicting Rainfall Erosion Losses: A Guide to Conservation Planning. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook. No. 537, pp. 58.
Xue, Z., Meng, X., & Liu, B. (2024). Spatiotemporal evolution and driving factors of ecosystem services in the upper Fenhe watershed, China. Ecological Indicators, 160, 111803. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2024.111803   
Zabihi, M. , Sadeghi, S.H. & Vafakhah, M. (2015). Spatial analysis of rainfall erosivity index patterns at different time scales ‎in Iran. Watershed Engineering and Management, 7(4), 442-457. https://doi.org/10.22092/ijwmse.2015.103089 (In Persian)
Zabihi, M., Moradi, H., Gholamalifard, M., Khaledi Darvishan, A., & Fürst, C. (2020). Landscape management through change processes monitoring in Iran. Sustainability, 12(5), 1753. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12051753
Zabihi, M., Moradi, H., Khaledi Darvishan, A., and Gholamalifard, M. (2025). Spatiotemporal variations analysis of water yield ecosystem service in the Hyrcanian region of northern Iran using the InVEST model. Water and Soil Management and Modelling, 5(3), 296-308. https://doi.org/10.22098/mmws.2025.1767.1614 (In Persian)
Zarandian, A., Mohammadyari, F., Mousazadeh, R., Ramezani Mehrian, M. & Badamfirooz, J. (2023). Evaluating the Role of Land Use in the Provision of Soil Retention Ecosystem Service (Case Study: Semnan Province). Environment and Interdisciplinary Development, 8(81), 107-119. https://doi.org/10.22034/envj.2024.432019.1331 (In Persian)

  • Receive Date 20 July 2025
  • Revise Date 14 September 2025
  • Accept Date 19 September 2025